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This will by a first attempt at recording some of the large volume of historical data I recently received for the Gardner Gun.  I would greatly appreciate any additions to this information.

Unidentified Newspaper article.  Late 1800's (Possibly Toledo Blade)

A Terrific Weapon of Warfare

Some years ago an ingenious inventor by the name of William Gardner, of Connecticut, got up a deadly machine gun, single barreled, which weighs, without the tripod it rests on, less than forty pounds, with the tripod seventy pounds, and which fires two hundred bullets a minute simply by turning a crank and feeding in the cartridges from a vertical wooden tube in which they are laid.  He also got up a double barreled gun, weighing eighty pounds by itself and including the tripod one hundred and ten pounds, which fires four hundred bullets per minute, with the same kind of mechanism.  Also a five barreled gun with a capacity for firing one thousand bullets in one minute and thirty seconds. 

In 1878 Mr. Gardner sold a part interest in his invention to a Cleveland company, composed of Messrs. John Tod, Oscar Childs, George Short, Lucien Hills, Richard C. Parsons and Captain P.G. Watmough.  Captain Watmough was sent to England in June, 1878 for the purpose of submitting this gun to the British government and having it adopted in the military and naval service.  After a siege of over two years, the captain succeeded in having about a million yards of red tape unreeled preparatory to the issue of an order to have the gun put through a severe trial, which was granted.  It took place at Shoeburyness last winter in competition with the Gatling, the Nordenfeldt, a Swedish gun, and the Pratt and Whitney, which was the first gun Mr. Gardner invented, and was transferred to that firm.  The trial resulted in the triumph of the Gardner and the adoption by the Government of his double and five barreled gun. The single barreled had previously been adopted, and it was not experimented upon at this trial.  The time took to fire 1,000 shots is as follows:

The Gardner five barreled gun, weighing fifty pounds less than the fastest Gatling, proved to be the most rapid in its execution, as is shown by the above table.  It is wonderfully simple in its construction and is absolutely less complicated in its details than the breech-loading rifle.  The single barreled, firing 200 shots per minute, weighing less than forty pounds is mounted on a tripod about thirty pounds in weight, and each separately can easily be carried by one man.  The range of these guns is about 3,000 yards - about a mile and two thirds.  Each gun will be provided with a spirit level gauge, which enables its aim to be surer.  Its efficiency for disabling an enemy's battery by training the gun on it and decimating all connected with it will be terrible.

Prominent officers of the British army have informed Captain Watmough that the adoption of this American machine gun has solved beyond a doubt the question of British supremacy in India. By equipping all the fortified places in India with these guns, which can be trained to shower thousands of bullets a minute on any given point, it makes it impossible to carry any such fortified works.  As a single and double bared gun can be managed by five men to each gun, and a five-barreled by not exceeding ten men, it can be seen how few men it will take to defend a fortification against the comparatively rude attacks of the native troops, who will not be allowed to be armed with the Gardner's gun.  This would release thousands of soldiers from garrison duty and enable them to take the field with their guns and deal destruction to any native armies that may be formed in the interest of a rebellion.

The Cleveland company has started a factory in London, under the superintendency of Mr. Gardner, for the purpose of manufacturing their gun.  Mr. John A. Norton, formerly of the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis railroad, has been appointed the business manager of the factory and he is now in London.  There is no doubt that a foundation of an immense business in manufacturing these guns has been laid, as the Continental powers will order them, now that the British government has formally proved its superiority by practical tests.

Unidentified Clipping.  Believe to be Toledo Blade 1885

CITY NEWS

The Gardner Gun

The Result of the Inventive Genius of a Toledoan. Some Interesting Facts Regarding the Wonderful Weapon.

There are few citizens of Toledo, who read the daily papers, who have failed perhaps to notice the many complimentary notices that have been paid the Gardiner (sic-JL) gun by the English press.  Its use in the battles of the Soudan (sic-JL) has brought it into prominent notoriety, and its efficiency on the battlefield is no longer questioned.  This gun is the invention of a Toledo boy.

It was about the year 1876 that Will Gardiner, one of the heirs of the Gardiner Place , on the corner of Madison and Superior streets, conceived the ideas which he afterwards put to a practical test in the shape of a gun.  He first constructed a wooden model, with sketches, etc  With these Mr. Beckman, the Adams street optician, worked out the first correct model.  This was taken to Washington, where it underwent many trials at the hands of the navy department.  It was, at that time, a double-barrelled (sic-JL) weapon and the naval officers objected to it on the ground that it was barbaric to make mince meat of a man after he had been shot to the ground.  Some months later, Gardiner went to Cleveland where he excited the interest of one Watmough, formerly collector of customs at the port.  Watmough was an old naval officer and with a keener foresight than some of his brother officers, he saw "the beauty of the thing."  He and Gardiner went to England and in time started a large factory at Leeds.  The British government made practical experiments of the weapon and at last became so well satisfied with it as to adopt it for use in the army and navy.  The United States officials, too slow to adopt the weapon, lost it, and the British government picked up the castaway, and to-day it is the greatest weapon fro warfare of the age.

The Gardiner gun is simple in construction, awful in execution.  In brief, it consists of a long ordinary gun-barrel, with a cylinder in the rear.  To this cylinder is attached a crank by which it is made to revolve.  Two upright leaders, perhaps 10 or 12 inches in length, fit close to this cylinder, and are just wide enough apart to admit of the body of a cartridge.  The ammunition is prepared in the ordinary cartridge form, after which a large number are fitted into a row of holes bored into a piece of wood about the same length as the leaders.  These cartridges are transferred into the leaders from the blocks of wood by simply running the leaders between the heads of the cartridges and the block. The crank is then turned one cartridge after another slips into the cylinder, is shoved home, a pin strikes the head, fires it, catches hold of the empty shell, draws back and is ready for another.  So rapid is the movement that 240 cartridges can b exploded in one minute.  The smallest sized gun weighs 73 pounds and can easily be carried from one point to another by two men.  The popular method of using it, is to mount it on a tripod placed in a cart and shoot while the horses are on a dead run.

Will Gardiner, the inventor, was well known in this city.  He is described as an awkward-looking fellow, with loose-fitting dress, in fact, so far as his general make-up was concerned, almost an exact prototype of Abraham Lincoln.  His father came to this city many years ago and was very wealthy. The Gardiner block, on Summit street, nearly opposite the Express office and Gardiner Place, are remnants of  his estate.  The inventor is now nearly 40 years old, and lives with his family in England.

Boston Herald July 8, 1894

MACHINE GUN FOR THE NAVY

Work of Selecting One Going on at Washington

[Special Dispatch To The Sunday Herald]

WASHINGTON, D.C. July 7, 1894.  The trial of rapid fire machine guns [has] (JL) begun at the Navy Yard yesterday to determine the most serviceable and practicable of the many well-known makes for the use of the Navy was continued today.  The guns on trial - the Maxim-Nordenfelt, Skoda, Gatling, English Gardner, and Accles- will each be subjected to the ease of manipulation, rust, dust, [dry], rapidity and ease of discharge, and accuracy tests as recently used in the trial of rapid-fire machine guns for the use of the army.  All but the [?] of these tests will be conducted at the navy yard, requiring about 10 days, and the guns will then be taken to the Indian Head proving grounds to determine their accuracy at 500 and 1000 yards.

Yesterday and this morning were consumed in the examination of the Maxim-Nordenfelt mechanism, taking the weapon apart and reassembling it, and the rapidity of fire and ease of manipulation were [shown]

AMERICAN BREECH-LOADING SMALL ARMS

ORDNANCE NOTES.-NO. 124     WASHINGTON, MARCH 17, 1880

GARDNER MACHINE GUN. [6 PLATES] -TRIAL OF THE GARDNER MACHINE GUN BY THE ORDNANCE BOARD, U.S.A., COMPOSED OF LIEUTENANT-COLONELS S. CRISPIN AND T.G. BAYLOR AND MAJOR CLIFTON COMLY, ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT. 

PLATE IV.

The Gardner gun, as submitted to the Board and as shown with its carriage on the drawings herewith transmitted, consists of two breech-loading rifled barrels, calibre .45, chambered for the service cartridge, placed horizontally and parallel, 1.4 inches apart, which with the working mechanism are inclosed in a brass casing.  By one complete turn of the hand-crank both barrels are loaded, fired, and the shells ejected.  The barrels are held in  position by rear and front barrel rings pinned to the case.  The casing extends sufficiently from the rear barrel ring to contain the lock mechanism, together with the driving crank and safety stop.  A swinging cover, hinged immediately over the rear barrel ring, gives easy access to all working parts of the gun in case of defective cartridges, derangements of locks, or other accident.  The cover when closed is secured in position by a few turns of the cascabel, which for that purpose has a screw-thread cut on its neck or stem entering the rear of the case.  The hand-crank that operates the gun is pinned fast to the main crank, which is supported by journal boxes.  The boxes are locked into the rear case, and serve as a protection to the swinging cover from side thrusts.  The body of the main crank is circular, having journals or crank-pins for operating the locks diametrically opposite each other-the firing being alternate-and eccentric enough to give the required motion to the locks as they are moved forward and back, driving in cartridges and withdrawing shells.  The outer portion of the crank-pins or journals are flattened to the circle of the periphery of the main crank for the purpose of holding the lock stationary while firing, about one-fifth part of the revolution of hand-crank allowing time for hang-fires. The lock in form resembles the letter U, having an extension from its side, which contains the firing-pin, main (spiral) spring, sector or spring-compressor, sector-sleeve, extractor, and lock-head.  The U part of the lock that works under and around the crank-pin is curved at the inner front to correspond with the outer circle of the crank, the office of the curved front being to hold the lock in position for firing.  The circular firing-pin is flattened a portion of its length near the front end, to allow it to pass under the extractor, by which it is held in position.  It extends from the head of the lock through the mainspring and sector-sleeve, terminating in a flange or head for locking into the sear.  The sear, having the form of a bell-crank, pivoted in the center to the lock, holds the firing-pin securely and prevents its forward motion until it is released from its hold by the action of the crank-journal when the lock is in its extreme forward position.

The sector or spring-compressor, hinged in a recess of the lock and engaging by means of gear-teeth with the sector-sleeve, has its arm forced against the safety-stop as the main crank advances, thus compressing, through the medium of the sector-sleeve, the mainspring and holding it tense until released by action of the sear.

The lock-heads serve as breech-plugs, and receive the recoil when he cartridges are fired.  Each lock carries a hook extractor, which rides over and catches the flange of the cartridge when the lock is forced forward, and when the lock retreats withdraws the empty shell until it comes within reach of the ejector, by which it is positively thrown out.  The shell-starters have a positive movement in connection with the lock-head.  Should be cartridge be driven by the extractor into the barrel to its head (as is the case when the gun is worked rapidly) before the lock is in firing position, it is forced from the chamber by the shell-starter as the lock advances and is held long enough for the extractor to engage with the head, when the lock, extractor, and cartridge are driven home together.  (NOTE: I have difficulty buying the last statement regarding the shell-starter.  My observation is that the only function of this part is to serve as a highly leveraged primary extraction for the spent shells.   In order for it to behave as described above, it would require an additional camming surface to allow the motion described.  Otherwise, if the cartridge was seated before the lock went home, this piece would be in front of the lock face rather than in the cutout on the side of the lock, and would therefore jam the gun. JL 11/1/2004)

The ejectors, hinged to the case are driven by projections on the sides of the locks, which give them lateral movements to eject the empty shells, or full cartridges in case of miss-fires.  They also serve as stops to prevent the cartridges from falling through the perforated plate as they are forced down through the feed valve.

The perforated plate extending across the rear case, to which it is fastened by a pin, has two parallel semi-circular grooves, which are enlarged extensions of the chambers in the barrels.  From the back part of the groove slots large enough to pass freely the cartridge (being wider at the rear behind the ejector than at the front) are cut downward through the plate.  When the retractor has drawn the shell back nearly to the extent of the throw of the crank the ejector forces the shell through the slot, and is then in position to receive another cartridge from the feed plate or valve.  The feed valve, attached to the swinging  cover, has a reciprocating motion across the perforated plate.  It has two angular openings of the size and shape of the outline of the cartridge, with centers equidistant with centers of the barrels.  After a cartridge has dropped one-half its diameter into the valve it is forced by the action of the latter into its true position and held positively against the cartridge support.  When the valve is again moved back the cartridge is forced downward into the perforated plate and the column of cartridges is cut off in the swinging cover-feed ways, which are extensions of the feed guide that is located above and in line with the perforated plate.

The feed valve is driven by the feed plate lever.  This also is attached to the swinging cover and is operated by the locks, using a out one-eighth the stroke of the crank in its forward motion, thereby giving the valve time to holed both cartridge and shell down in position as they move in and out from the barrel.  The feed guide is a simple plate, having two parallel T grooves extending from end to end, their centers equidistant with the centers of the barrels.  The upper end of the guide has a trumpet-shaped mouth, to facilitate the entrance of the cartridge heads.  The lower end is provided with a cartridge stop, which lifts all cartridges contained in the guide when it is taken out from the swinging cover by which it is supported.  The guide is held fast in firing position by a spring catch.  It can be quickly released by drawing back the spring catch by pressure on its exposed arm.  In placing the guide in position the spring catch becomes self-acting.  These operations require but one hand, leaving the other free to place the safety-stop arm in position.  The safety-stop is an oblong block having an angular face, against which the arm of the sector in the lock may engage when the locks are moved forward by the crank.  It is held in position by two links, which are moved by an arm that is pinned fast to a shaft passing through the rear of the case, to the outer end of which is pinned the stop-arm.  This arm is constructed in the form of a hand crank, having a stop spindle placed in its handle, behind the shoulder of which is placed a spiral spring that forces the spindle out from the arm into the stop-holes, two in number, in the rear case.  When the stop spindle is in the upper hole the arm is in line with the barrels, the safety-stop is thrown within reach of the sector arm, by which the mainsprings are compressed and the gun is in firing position.  When the spindle is in the lower hole the stop is carried forward out of the way of the sector arm, and in no case can the springs be compressed while the safety arm is down.

The cartridges are contained in perforated wooden blocks (holding twenty each), channeled on the sides for receiving the fitted tin covers in the manner adapted to the Gardner gun.  The cartridges thus arranged are simply and readily conveyed through the feed guider to the gun, and as the block is emptied before the cartridges previously inserted are expended a continuous fire can be sustained.

In the service of the gun three men are required; one at the lever and turning the crank, one inserting and withdrawing the cartridge blocks, the other in passing cartridges properly fitted in their blocks.

Carriage Plate V.

The distinctive feature of the carriage lies in the bed-plate, with its arrangement for oscillation, and in the manner of attaching or mounting the gun.  For the latter purpose the frame fitted to the bed-plate has as its forward portion a projecting arm (x) bored at the upper end for attachment by an ordinary pinned hinge to the casing f the gun at a point just below the rear barrel rings.  The second attachment is at the rear of the casing by means of a sliding clamp to the elevating (and oscillating) lever, which in its turn is attached to the plate at the point (y).

The bed-plate holds a spring (a, Fig. 1) by means of which the oscillation of the gun can be increased or diminished, as follows:  The lug c, Fig. 5, which governs the lateral motion of the gun, has a screw attached to the upper end, this screw passing through to the rear of the bed-plate and arranged with an adjustable handle and stay-nut.  When the lug is drawn by the screw to its rearmost point the lug enters the semi-circular notch c, Fig. 1, and side motion of the gun is checked; as the lug is pushed forward by running in the screw, the lever being worked from side to side, it strikes the sides of the springs, (a,a) the amplitude of the oscillation increasing as the lug is pushed forward, until passing the spring it reaches the circular channel k, where it is checked by a stop-pin when the gun has the full range of the horizon.  When in this position the lateral motion can be checked at any point by using the clamp R, Fig. 4, encircling the rim s, Fig.1, which, being a part of the bed-plate and attached to the carriage, is immovable.

Results of Firing.

Twenty cartridges, fired for the purpose, gave an average initial velocity of 1,280 feet.  A test for rapidity of fire gave an average of 357 per minute.

The target firing at targets of spruce boards, 11X52 feet, resulted as follows:

At 200 yards, 98.20 per cent. of hits.

At 500 yards, 92.20 per cent of hits.

At1,000 yards, 52 per cent. of hits.

There were no miss-fires, and the gun worked evenly and well.

Recommendation,

The trials of this gun at Sandy Hook having shown it to be one of simple construction, easily manipulated, and of sure action, (though of less rapidity of fire than other machine guns heretofore tested by the Board,) and in view of the fact that its cost, for a machine gun, will be comparatively light, the Board would recommend the purchase by the Department of a limited number for actual trial in service, as compared to other machine guns now in the hands of troops.

(Nomenclature and Figures of the gun are shown elsewhere on this site. - JL)

Toledo Blade 1886 ?

CAPT. WILLIAM GARDNER

Death of the Inventor of the Gardner Gun - A Remarkable Life.

Col. J. D. Norton received a letter this morning from his brother, who is living in London, to the effect that Capt. William Gardner, the inventor of the famous Gardner gun, had died one week ago Friday.  None of the circumstances attending his death were given.  A BLADE reporter called at the residence of Mrs. Gardner, the stepmother of the deceased, but she was not even aware of her son's death or that he had been sick.

The Gardner family are well known t the old residents of this city.  They moved here from Marietta when William was but 9 years of age.  The old homestead, at the corner of Superior and Madison, is to this day known as the "Gardner Place." although but little of the original appearance is left.  As early as the war, William, who was of an ingenious disposition, evinced a mania for guns, and worked early and late on ideas which he had concerning their efficiency.  The result was the Gardner gun, which is now known the wide world over.  The exact date of the invention cannot be given, but it must have been shortly after the war.  Nineteen years ago William's father died, and from that time he worked assiduously to make the patent a perfect success.  He endeavored to awaken an interest on the part of the war department in his invention, but he failed.  He finally succeeded in getting up a stock company in Cleveland, and eventually gained a foothold in England, whose government adopted it.  A factory was recently built in London and a large number of the guns are being turned out annually.

Lately a misunderstanding has sprung up between Capt. Gardner and his company of which he had been superintendent and general manager.  The result of this was that he went to Germany where he remained for some months, working on a new patent.  He wrote to his friends here that he proposed to name his second invention as the "William Gardner" gun.  Whether he had completed his work and was ready to apply for a patent is not yet known. 

Capt. Gardner was very popular when he lived in this city.  He had a large heart, was generous and open-handed, and was as true as steel to his many friends.  He was a genius, and in addition had the qualities which were required to bring out that genius.  His gun will be his monument and will last for ages.

Unknown Source - Battle Report excerpt

A more formidable work was built to screen the hospital redoubt, thrown up for the artillery on the Gakdul side, and the position was strengthened in the other direction, where the Royal Irish in the trench held the crest of the low black hill, two hundred yards from the fort, keeping the enemy's skirmishers in check.

The Naval Brigade, with two Gardner guns, were posted on the main work, the trenches round being held by the mounted infantry, the Sussex, the Guards, the Heavies, and a detachment of the Light Camel Corps.  The horses of the 19th Hussars were sheltered in a deep ditch.

This gun only fired four rounds before it was silenced by the two seven-pounders of Major Hunter's battery, which came into action in the open, to the left of the rear of the Royal Irish.  While Major Wardrop's dodgy flank movement was being made, Lord Charles Beresford kept up a heavy fire from the Gardners, sweeping the rugged ridge where the rebels had their rifle pits, and completely subduing the fire from the stone fort on the commanding summit to the north-east, twelve hundred yards off, whence the riflemen had hurled a continuous storm of bullets all night, many of which fell among the ranks of the Royal Irish, whose rear was exposed to this fire.

Unknown Source - Report

Gardner Guns.

The Marquess of HARINGTON informed Colonel Tottenham that no report had been received as to the working of the Gardner guns in the recent actions, but at El Teb and Tamai the result was, on the whole, favourable.  Lord Wolseley had not applied for more machine guns, but a battery of six of these guns would accompany the Expedition to Suakim.

Unknown Source - Death Announcement for Mrs. Sallie Gardner

DEATH SUDDENLY CALLS MRS. SALLIE GARDNER

Had been ill for a long time but the end came unexpectedly.

Death came suddenly yesterday afternoon to Mrs. Sallie Howell Gardner, widow of Capt. William Gardner of London, England, at her apartment, 118 Alfred Street. Though she had lived quietly during the 21 years of her residence in Detroit, few persons had a wider circle of friends and acquaintances in exclusive circles.

Before her marriage, which occurred when she was 19 years old in Toledo.  On the [dawn] (?) of her birth, Mrs. Gardner was Miss Sallie Howell-Mitchell.  Her husband, Capt. Gardner, was a veteran of the civil war.   A few years after her marriage Mrs. Gardner and her husband removed to London, England.  Capt. Gardner achieved fame as the inventor of the Gardner gun which for a time was in general use in the armies of several European nations.

Soon after Capt. Gardner's death the widow and her three daughters took up their residence in Detroit , which had been Mrs. Gardner's home ever since.  She was a member of Christ Episcopal Church.

Besides the daughters, Mrs. Robert Corbet Hill of Seattle Wash and the misses Virginia and Elizabeth P. Gardner of this city, Mrs. Gardner is survived by two sisters, Mrs. Alfred E. Brush and Mrs. William R. [Crouls], also of this city.  Miss Elizabeth Gardner is on the staff of the Free Press.

The funeral will take place Monday.  The internment will be in Detroit.

Unknown date- International Congress of Engineers Journal Pages 801-811 ( I would greatly appreciate being able to identify and obtain the remainder of this text)

RAPID-FIRE GUNS AND MITRAILLEUSES. By Jose L. Legorreta, Major of Artillery, Mexican Army.  Translated by Lieut. William F. Hancock, Fifth U.S. Artillery

If I have not followed a good plan or if in any other way I have made mistakes, nevertheless my work will not fail to be of some use, because it may develop in others the idea of doing it better and of adding various things that I may have omitted. - Daniel Le Clerc, 1729

The following works have been consulted in composing this essay:  Revue d'Artillerie (French); Memorial de Artilleria espanol; The Artillery in the Exposition of 1889 by Veyrines; Comparison between Field Guns and Mitrailleuses, by Klutschack; Military and Scientific Memoirs published by the French Navy Department; Description of the Materiel of the 15-Centimeter Rapid-Fire Gun of 45 Calibers, Schneider System; Report on Ordinary and Rapid-Fire Guns, by Brig. Gen. Alejandro Pezo.

RAPID-FIRE GUNS AND MITRAILLEUSES.

Before taking up the study of rapid-fire guns, it is proper to say a few words about mitrailleuses, as these were the origin of the guns mentioned.

According to the statement of Capt. Fackels, the invention of the mitrailleuse dates from the year 1851, Mr. Fasschamps, of Belgian origin, and an ex-officer of Napoleon I, having been the inventor; but the real use of this class of weapons was first made about the year 1867, during the war of secession in the United States, the mitrailleuse invented by Dr. Gatling being employed. 

When this gentleman conceived his mitrailleuse the manufacture of metallic cartridges was not sufficiently perfected to allow them to be easily used, so that the small success then attained by the new weapon is not to be wondered at, since to natural imperfections always accompanying every invention in its infancy was added the lack of proper ammunition.

The Reffye mitrailleuses used in the Franco-German war (1870-'71), and which were constructed under the direction of that illustrious chief did not, unfortunately, conform to the diligence and care taken in their construction, since their mechanism, although very ingenious, was both heavy and delicate, while in addition it required four horses to draw the; these disadvantages were not offset by proportionate advantages, as they fired but one hundred and fifty shots a minute.

Then came the Hotchkiss, Nordenfelt, Gardner, and Montigny mitrailleuses, all of which were worked by cranks or levers.  This required them to be mounted on resisting and heavy carriages, so that the motions of the operator should not be transmitted to the gun, and for the same reason necessitated the use of elevating screws and toggle for pointing.

One of the things which most contributes to the regularity and precision of fire of any arm is the class of powder employed.  If the quality and state of preservation of the cartridges used with a mitrailleuse are not what they should be, failures will occur with them.  Thus, if humidity or time have caused deterioration in the powder, the cartridge will not explode, or will not do so at the proper time; that is to say, the shot will not be fired at the instance the cap is struck by the firing pin, necessitating, with the mitrailleuses mentioned, a regulation  of the velocity of fire to give time for the cartridge to ignite, otherwise there is danger of withdrawing  it from the gun at the moment of explosion and occasioning grave injuries to the mechanism.

This difficulty, which has been one of the serious objections raised against the mitrailleuses mentioned, was corrected by Mr. Hiram Maxim.  In his mitrailleuse the recoil produced by the explosion was utilized in working the gun and the breech mechanism, performing the different movements in loading, so that it follows that the cartridge can not leave the gun before it has ignited.

Likewise other inventors of small-caliber guns have gone on introducing improvements designed to make them as light and resistant as possible, given the caliber and other dimensions, at the same time producing a simple and rapid action, so that they can e used on shipboard as well as in the field.

In spite of this the sphere of action of mitrailleuses is quite limited.  Theirs is a special fire destined almost exclusively for short distances.  They can be used with good results, according to their calibers, to work on the flanks of artillery, protecting it from the fire of infantry; in the defense of a narrow pass, as the entrance of a defile, a street, a farmhouse, a country house, etc.; but never can they produce good results when used in all the circumstances of a campaign, and when placed in the same category with the other classes of artillery.

If the results attained by mitrailleuses b compared with those of field or mountain artillery it will be found that almost all the advantages are on the side of the latter.

The effect of the projectiles is the criterion of the power of an artillery.  The bullet of a mitrailleuse can be satisfactorily employed against a close attack to aid the infantry to resist it and make the counter-attack.

Shells serve to destroy obstacles and open breaches, being also used against troops in close order, when they produce their effect both by shock and by explosion.

At long distances and against hidden troops they can be used with advantage, since they permit a rectification of the distances estimated.  In firing on batteries there is difficulty, if the latter use the ordinary powder, in distinguishing the effect produced on account of the smoke.  Their violent explosion produces a very important moral effect on the troops.

Of all projectiles the shrapnel gives the best results, employed against all formations of the enemy's troops.  It supplies the means of extending to the very great distances the effects of mitrailleuse fire.  As the sheaf of fragments scattered by the explosion is quite broad and extends from above the downward, the targets are struck in whatever formation they may be, whether standing or lying,   This projectile is as good for enfilade or escarp fire as for direct.

To regulate the shrapnel fire a few trials shots to get the range are sufficient.  Its effect in the presence of the enemy, on account of the noble valor of the artillery which fires it, the good organization and the precise means of observation at its disposition, will approximate closely to that obtained in practice.

Having examined the effects and power of the projectiles of field guns, and seeing those produced by mitrailleuses, a comparison can be established between the guns mentioned.

At times in engagements at short distances mitrailleuse multiply the effects produced by bullets, but their function is entirely confined to this.  Beyond 800 meters their effect is so weak that the points of fall are not observable; there is no phenomenon similar to the explosion of a shell which makes them recognizable,  Consequently the estimations of distances is very imperfect.

In comparative tests made with common shells, shrapnel, and projectiles of mitrailleuses it has been observed that the latter at short distances show more hits on the targets than the others, but the hits are found in a very limited area, while those of common shell and shrapnel cover the whole extent.

Mitrailleuses are lacking in nearly all conditions imposed upon artillery in view of the requirements, each day greater, it is necessary to fulfill, as far as concerns the different kinds of fire necessary.  They can not in any way replace hollow projectiles, lacking as they are in the power of effect given by a long trajectory and the property of being able to hit hidden objects by means of curved fire; the latter being a capital defect, as the combatants will try by every means to shelter themselves from the direct fire of the artillery.

Even at short distances, in order that the mitrailleuse fire shall be effective, it is necessary that the guns shall be in expert hands, as the delicate and sometimes complicated mechanism requires much practice and care.  They require an excellent personnel and a promptness in their management which does not harmonize well with the calmness required for good shooting.

Mitrailleuses are incapable of taking part in all the stages of a combat.  They are of value only in certain particular instances of which the defense of defiles is the type.

RAPID-FIRE GUNS

Manifold requirements impossible to fulfill with mitrailleuses and revolving cannon, have led to the adoption of simple cannon, but of rapid fire, especially in the Nay, where on many occasions a lively and continuous fire is indispensable.  The first guns of this kind were invented in 1883.  Since then, indeed, their construction has been notably developed and perfected.

With the first guns of this class vessels could combat torpedoes, which, owing to their small size and great velocity, could not be satisfactorily be engaged by ordinary guns; but on account of their small caliber, for at first they hardly reached 60 millimeters, they were only employed as an auxiliary armament, and many of the maritime powers adopted them for this purpose.

Sometime afterward the firms that had devoted themselves to the construction of this kind of artillery tried to adapt it to use in the field as a complement of artillery of this kind, and thereby gave a new impulse to its manufacture, increasing the calibers and introducing reforms and improvements directed toward this end.

Notwithstanding the greater development given to rapid-fire guns, those who are engaged in their construction have not met with the reception they expected from the great powers, especially in regard to guns of large caliber, which has again compelled them to turn their attention to the construction of artillery for the navy.

The far from enthusiastic reception with which the guns of which we are treating have met among many nations we believe should be recognized as originating from the following motives:

In order that these guns may render service of real practical utility in the field, generally speaking, they should be able to be fired without frequent correction of the pointing, and consequently the carriages on which they are mounted should have no recoil, or, if it exists, it should be so small as to occasion no sensible derangement  of the aim.

Now, as the carriages in the field can not be fixed as those, for instance, used on board vessels, unless they have to be easily transportable, it is impossible to eliminate the recoil; and although one may succeed in sufficiently reducing the recoil in many of the pieces constructed for field service, motions always occur which cause the direction of the aim to change and which naturally necessitate frequent rectifications.  This as is natural, occasions loss of time, so that the firing can not be carried on with the rapidity it should be if this were not the case.

On the other hand, even when the derangements in the fire are insignificant, as firing in the warfare of which we are treating is in most instances conducted against troops in motion, it would be necessary to frequently point while following the enemy's change of place, as without this verification only the first shot or first shots will be useful; so that the rapidity of fire attained by these guns will become delusive and almost pernicious, on account of the useless waste of ammunition and loss of time, as far as concerns the rest of the shots fired without rectifying the pointing.

Another of the causes which occasion delays in ring is the preparation of the fuses when the projectiles are furnished with time or double-action fuses, as when firing is to be done against columns of attack, since the fire then most effective is the shrapnel.

There is another obstacle int e adoption of rapid-fire guns for field artillery, and that is the probable increase in the number of wagons for carrying the necessary ammunition; for firing with a rapidity markedly greater than ordinary guns, the consumption of ammunition will necessarily be much greater, and in addition the care with which this ammunition is transported will have to be also greater on account of the ease with which the metallic cases of the cartridges are deformed.

The apparatus for diminishing the recoil (hydraulic buffers, springs, etc.) are still another inconvenience in the field, as in addition to being delicate to regulate it is difficult to repair them.  The hydraulic buffers, for instance, so useful and advantageous under other circumstances, have another disadvantage, especially for mountain artillery, that if by accident they get empty, which may easily happen in mounting or dismounting the piece, it is not easy to get them filled when they are to be supplied with liquids such as glycerin, which are not common.

From these remarks we may conclude that rapid-fire guns will never be able to advantageously replace field guns, but will only serve as auxiliaries to them in certain instances.

Indeed, certain circumstances exist in a campaign in the field where rapid-fire guns, in spite of their inferiority to ordinary guns in this kind of warfare, generally considered, will give quite valuable service.

When it is necessary to fire on a rapidly moving object against which the action of artillery can not be of long duration, field guns become inefficacious as the slowness of their fire renders it impossible for them to do the work easily.

If, for instance, the occasion arises for repulsing a cavalry attack, the light field batteries attached to the cavalry may work with good results during the first phase of the attack, which is a duel with the opposing artillery; but it will be very difficult for them to properly fill their role during the advance and the cavalry charge, break its cohesion, restrain the impulse of the squadrons, and compel them to become groups; for the handling of an ordinary gun is relatively too dilatory, the service piece too laborious, the pointing too slow for a piece of this kind to be rally effective against an assailant that is not obliged to remain exposed to its fire except for a few minutes.